Is A Third Reef Necessary?

For Cryptic this season (2012) I have had a fully battened mainsail put on a new ZSpar mast and boom. Its been hard work putting up the mainsail and getting the reefs sorted. I thought I had it straight away - two (first and third) on the port clutches and the second on the inside starboard clutch. Turns out this is correct but the one I assumed was the first reef was actually the third (it is the first if you count up the mast!).

I am a bit clearer now but fitting the foot of the reef rings around the 'rams-head' is hard work - especially as you have to go on deck to do this. I need to remember to keep all the reef sheets running free too ... especially as when hauling up the main halliard.

Do I think I need three? I am not sure. The boat soared up the Sound of Mull (less than four hours!) under mainsail only, when the second reef was in ... in about 20 knots of wind.

Still, early days.

Below is an article I found of interest and am re-publishing it again here. I have changed nothing and all the work is John Vigor's - see http://www.johnvigor.com/Welcome.html

http://johnvigor.blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/is-third-reef-necessary.htmlJanuary 27, 2011

Is a third reef necessary?

EVERY NOW AND THEN some cruising sailor gets caught out in a gale and comes home wondering out loud if the mainsail should have a third reef. The advice comes pouring in from all sides, and it’s usually contradictory and confusing.

Racing skippers will tell you they never reef. Well, hardly ever. But it’s different for them. They don’t care if their mainsails flog themselves to bits on the beat. They’re going to buy new sails next season anyhow. And they’ve got large muscular crews with highly developed clinging powers, so they won’t fall overboard when the boat broaches and the mast hits the water.

Some sailmakers aren’t much use, either. A contributor to one bulletin board I read recently said his sailmaker simply refused to put a third reef in the mainsail for his 26-foot full-keeler. “He said the extra sailcloth and grommets involved would screw up my main's light-air performance. I would add too much ‘stuff’ (weight, hardware, etc.) up high, where I don't want it. And would not let the leech open up properly in light air.” Well, to put it delicately, this is pure poppycock, of course. That sailmaker has been brain-washed by racing skippers.

However, I personally don’t believe a boat of average displacement under 35 feet in length is going to benefit from a third reef in storm conditions in the open ocean. Perhaps that reef might help in calm water near shore, but it’s not going to generate enough power to push a boat to windward in the big seas a storm generates.

My preference is for two oversized reefs on a boat of that size, and when things become too hectic for the second reef you have three choices: lie a-hull, heave to under a main trysail, or run off, either under a storm jib or under bare poles.

Now when it comes to bigger boats, a third reef can make sense. The difference here is that a big boat not only finds it easier to carry its way against big waves, but it also can carry comparatively more sail to drive it to windward. That’s because stability (hence the power to carry sail) increases as a cube of the boat’s length, while the force of the wind increases only as a square of its speed.

So, while a 40-footer is only 62 percent longer than a 25-footer, it can carry 410 percent more sail for the same degree of stability. That means a third reef in a 40-footer is comparatively much bigger than a third reef in a 25-footer, and is thus able to generate a comparatively greater amount of power.

I once had a third reef added to my main on a 31-foot heavy displacement sloop. I went through seven gales with that boat and never used my third reef once. I thought it would substitute for a main trysail, but by the time the third reef was down, the center of effort had moved too far forward. The heavy wind against the mast and rigging simply blew the bows off and she wouldn’t heave to. That’s what a trysail is all about. It gets sail area well aft, so the stern will blow to leeward and the boat will end up lying pointing at an angle of 60 or 70 degrees off the oncoming wind and waves. That’s the safest, most comfortable position until the boat starts to be picked up bodily and hurled down sideways.

Finally, let me repeat the three basic rules of thumb about the timing of reefing:
1. Reef before you have to.
2. When sailing downwind, reef in the same wind speed you would if you were beating. (Not easy either to judge or to do, but very necessary.)
3. When in doubt, go straight to the double reef.

Today’s Thought
The tempest’s howl, it soothes my soul,
My griefs it seems to join;
The leafless trees my fancy please,
Their fate resembles mine.
— Burns, Winter: A Dirge

Boaters’ Rules of Thumb, #152
WHEN to reef? Before you lose control. On the wind, the signs are pretty obvious: sidedecks awash, dreadful weather helm, and lack of response to the helm. Downwind, watch for prolonged surfing and a sloppy, dead feeling to the helm when a waves passes underneath the stern. Time to slow down.

Après moi, le déluge
I’M PLEASED and astonished to report that new Followers have been flocking around in hordes to compensate for the fickle Follower who left me for greener pastures (long may he rot). The Follower count is now up to a record 37. I am a happy man.

Tailpiece
“Hey, do me a favor, willya? Stick your head out the window and see if my turn signals are working.”
“Okay.”
“Well, are they working?”
“Yes — no — yes — no — yes — no —”

(Drop by every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, for a new Mainly about Boats column.)
Posted by John Vigor at 10:07 PM
Labels: boating, cruising, humor, reefing, sailing, Vigor
5 comments:

Bursledon Blogger said...

our Van de stadt 34 had three reefs,and hove to perfectly for 48 hours in a mid Atlantic gale, was also useful sheeted right in hard as a steadying sail with twin headsails going down win, would stop the rolling.

Your experience with a Nic 31 probably says more about the boat than the sails - having tried both types I'm convinced that medium to light displacement and traditional hull from i.e narrow transom is the best all round cruising boat. i'm sure others will disagree
29 January, 2011
John Vigor said...

Hi Bursledon B:

Yes, I would agree with you that moderation in all respects is the way to go with a cruising boat. The extremes of very light displacement and very heavy displacement often have more cons than pros. And Van de Stadt knew what he was doing when he designed the 34. Very nice boat.
Have to say, though, that I'm always astonished when people in foreign countries reveal what they know about me. It wasn't actually a Nicholson 31 that I owned, but it was a very close relative, a Performance 31 designed by Angelo Lavranos.

Cheers,

John V.
29 January, 2011
Ben said...

My 26 footer ended up with 4 reefs (long story), One to many, but I used the 4th reef alot around Wellington, across the Tasman and then around Tassie. (3.5 hp outboard so really needed to sail in strong winds).

I delivered a 28 footer back to NZ with only two deep reefs... couldn't get the groove right, either too much sail or not enough, really wished I had three moderate reefs.

Saying that neither boat had roller reefing headsails so I used the main as my throttle. I reef and unreef often, sometimes a couple of times per watch to keep in that nice comfey groove just below hull speed were the windvane works best.

Give me three reefs on any sized sloop or cutter designed for offshore.

I enjoy your writing John, and love the black box theory, I apply it alot in real life, it's probably saved me a few times..

Cheers

Ben
31 January, 2011
John Vigor said...

Hi Ben:

Yes, most of us are inclined not to fine-tune the exact amount of reef, as you do with such dedication. Most of us are content to be a bit underpowered and get nowhere fast. But you're absolutely right about the need for a good amount of sail area in strong winds, especially in the tough seas you seem to be sailing in, between OZ and NZ. Your frequent reefing and unreefing is certainly earning you points in the black box.

Cheers and best wishes,

John V.
01 February, 2011
s/v Windward said...

Windward, my Herreshoff 26 (OK, it's a Chrysler, perhaps the Rodney Dangerfield of sailboats, but Halsey was the hired gun and she sails very, very well) has three fairly deep reef points, each reducing the 26 ft luff by 4 ft.

On my local mountain lake I'm able to use the 3rd reef a couple of times each winter, when winds are 20-25 kt or more. I don't have pretenses to sailing offshore, but do sail on North Carolina's Pamlico Sound, and up to 25 miles offshore (but inside the gulf stream) from Ocracoke to Cape Fear. I was thankful for the 3rd reef a couple of years ago on Pamlico Sound during several days of small craft advisories, making 5.4 to 5.8 kt upwind using that and about 40 sq ft of headsail. The waves were only 4-6 feet despite the 25-30 kt breeze, so there was no problem getting enough clear air to move the boat. Downwind that sail combination kept me above hull speed most of the time, and I could not have carried more sail safely.

Sailing 20-25 miles offshore south of Cape Lookout, I have found it challenging to keep the boat moving when heavily reefed, and have had to carry more sail than I anticipated. I've had the luxury (good fortune? good sense?) of avoiding gale conditions there, so don't yet know whether the third reef would be effective for me then.

Some Hand signals used by scuba divers

Some Hand signals used by scuba divers .... usually used underwater!

I am cold! Hugging chest - Crossed arms in front of chest, upper arms grabbed by opposite hands.

I am out of breath! Hands indicate rising and falling chest.

I can't clear this ear: Pointing at the ear with forefinger.

Go that way: Fist with one hand, thumb extended and pointing in the direction indicated.

Go under, over or around: With palm down, hand motion used to indicate intended route to go under, over or around an obstacle.

Ascend, or I am going up: A fist is made with one hand, thumb extended upward, and hand is moved upward to emphasize direction of travel.

Descend, or I am going down: A fist is made with one hand, thumb extended downward, and hand is moved downward to emphasize direction of travel.

Something is wrong: An open hand with palm down and fingers apart is rocked back and forth on the axis of the forearm.

Are you OK? or I am OK! A circle is made with thumb and forefinger, extending the remaining fingers if possible. (The OK sign may be also be made without extending the fingers if wearing gloves).

Stop! Hand raised vertically with fingers together and palm facing the receiver.

Turn around: A forefinger extended vertically and rotated in a circular motion.

Which direction? A fist is make with one hand with extemded thumb and the hand rotated on the axis of the forearm through 180° a few times to ask which way to go.

Boat: Hands cupped together.

Buddy reference. Used alone: Get with your buddy: Fists made with both hands, forefingers extended, and hands placed together with forefingers parallel and in contact.

Hold on to each other - Maintain physical contact: Both hands clasped together.

Who will lead, who will follow: One hand pointed at the diver who will lead then positioned in front of the body, pointing forward, then other hand pointed to the diver who will follow and positioned behind the first, direction indicated with forefingers.

Level off at this depth: Flat hand with palm down and fingers spread moved slowly back and forth horizontally.

Take it easy, Relax or Slow down: Flat hand with palm down moved slowly up and down a few times.

Give me air now (emergency implied): pointing to the mouth with thumb and fingers together, moving hand back and forth a short distance.

I'm out of air: "Cutting" or "chopping" throat with a flat hand!

I don't know: Shrugging shoulders, arms bent, hands to each side, palms up

Danger in that direction: Clenched fist pushed/pointed in the direction of the perceived hazard.

How much air do you have left?: One hand held flat, palm up, while index and middle finger of the other hand are placed on the palm.

There is air leaking from your equipment: Index finger is brought down to thumb in repetitive motion. Size of movement indicates severity of leak.

Cut the line: A request to another diver to cut a line or net. Often used in case of entanglement where the diver making the signal can not reach the point where the line should be cut.

Safety stop: Signal is used to indicate that the diver intends to do a safety stop at that point.

Line, Line tangle or Cutting the line: The index finger is crossed with the middle finger to indicate line. If the hand is moved in a figure 8 it means a line tangle. Pointed down and rotated means a line tie off. In combination with the cutting signal it means cut the line.

Silt, or Silting: Palm and fingers down, thumb rubbed against the tips of the fingers

I have a cramp: Repeatedly clenching and un-clenching fist, and point at cramped area

I am on reserve or I am on bailout gas or I am low on gas: Clenched fist held steady, about level with head or chest, palm side usually forward

Time up - time to turn the dive and start heading back: Flat hand held roughly horizontal with tips of other flat hand's fingers touching the palm at right angles

Come and get me as soon as you can, but not an emergency: Signal to boat. Arm held straight up at the surface.

I see a hammerhead shark: Both fists against sides of head.

I see a lobster: Fist with index and middle finger pointed out horizontally and alternately waggling up and down.

I see an octopus: Back of hand or wrist covering mouth, all fingers pointing outward from mouth and wiggling.

I see a shark: Hand flat, fingers vertical, thumb against forehead or chest.

I see a turtle: Hands flat one on top of each other, palms down, waving thumbs up and down together.

Instructor signals:

You (all) watch me. (usually before demonstrating a skill): Point at diver(s) with forefinger, point at own eyes with forefinger and middle finger, point at own chest with forefinger.

You try that now, or do it again: Gesture with open hand palm up towards student after a demonstration of a skill.

And some surface signals!

I'm OK: Forming a large circle with both hands above the head.

I'm OK: Touching or tapping the top of the head with elbow extended sideways.

Emergency! Help me now: Waving one or both arms in a wide arc.

Using A Marine Radio

The accepted conventions for use of marine radio are collectively termed "proper operating procedure."

These conventions include:
o Listening for 2 minutes before transmitting
o Using Channel 16 only to establish communication (if necessary) and then switch to a different channel, using a set of international "calling" procedures such as the "Mayday" distress call, the "Pan-pan" urgency call and "Securité" navigational hazard call.

o Using "pro-words" based on the English language –
o Acknowledge,
o All after,
o All before,
o All stations,
o Confirm,
o Correct,
o Correction,
o In figures,
o In letters,
o Over,
o Out,
o Radio check,
o Read back,
o Received,
o Repeat,
o Say again,
o Spell,
o Standby,
o Station calling,
o This is,
o Wait,
o Word after,
o Word before,
o Wrong
o Using the NATO phonetic alphabet: (see later)
o Using a phonetic numbering system based on English


VHF Marine Radios: VHF marine radios are a great asset to all who use them. They are not chat lines however, and should be used for working messages only. Misuse of the equipment could disrupt other users within the area. All VHF radio users are legally required to hold an operators licence and he vessel to which the radio is fitted must have a ship radio licence. A 'station' is a term for a VHF Radio. As a general rule listen to the channel for 30 seconds before transmitting to ensure it is not already in use.

The Radio: All marine radio equipment must be approved according to government specifications. There is a maximum power output of 25W although 1W is usually sufficient for most activities other than distress calls or public correspondence.

Channel Purpose:
• 16 International Distress, safety and calling
• 6 Primary Inter ship
• 8, 72, 77 Inter ship
• 12, 14 Port Operations
• 67 Small Craft safety
• M, M2 Marina Special Licence
• 2, 24, 26, 28 Ship to shore (public correspondence)
• 6, 67, 73 Search And Rescue Co-ordination

VHF Signals: The range of VHF is line of sight and has an Inter-ship range of 15-25 miles. Ship to shore range is about 30-50 miles.
Dual Watch (D/W): a facility that allows you to monitor two channels via switching. Do not transmit on dual watch.

Digital Selective Calling: uses CRS but requires an additional kit for the radio set.

Capture Effect: when a receiver within range of two stations will receive only the more powerful or closer signal, the other signal will be lost.

Aerials - should be high and upright and clear of other aerials by at least 1M. An emergency aerial should also be carried.

Control of Communication
o Ship to shore - coast radio station
o Inter-ship - station calling
o Search and Rescue - Vessel in distress, relay station, Coastguard, on scene vessel / aircraft

Duration of Calls
o Test Call / Radio Check - 10 sec
o Calling on Channel 16 - 1 min
o Calling again on Channel 16 - 3 min
o Listen on channel before calling - 30 sec

Distress calls: Coastguard use GMT all year round. Each station has an obligation to respond to a distress call: write down time, name, position, nature of distress, no of people on board and additional information.

If the Coastguard says 'wait' this means they will respond within 10 minutes.

Any longer than that should be given a reason prior. Only repeat things three times if it is a distress call.

Otherwise use their name once and your name twice. Distress calls should make the following 7 points in order:

o Distress call
o Identity
o Position (Note that the position is given in geographical area as distance 'from object' not 'to object' when working out bearing. Otherwise use Lat. and Long.)
o Nature of distress
o Information for search and rescue
o Invitation to reply
o Message Meaning
o Mayday (Distress)

Definition: When a vessel or person is in grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance - fire, accident damage, lee shore situation (under lee shore is when you are sheltered by the shore), diver not surfaced, man lost overboard, person is gravely ill.

Example:

Mayday

MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY.

This is CRYPTIC, CRYPTIC, CRYPTIC,

MAYDAY CRYPTIC,

My position is: 180 degrees, one mile from buoy number 1.

I am sinking and require immediate assistance

Four crew members on board, all safety equipment and

EPIRB at 406 MHz


Mayday Relay: Mayday relays are transmitted when the station in distress cannot itself transmit a distress signal or when, although not in a position to assist a distress message is heard that has not been acknowledged. Example:

MAYDAY RELAY, MAYDAY RELAY, MAYDAY RELAY.

This is Yacht CRYPTIC, Yacht CRYPTIC, Yacht CRYPTIC,

MAYDAY Evelyn Rose.

Position is: 180 degrees, one mile from buoy number 1.

Yacht sinking and requires immediate assistance

Four crew members on board, all safety equipment and
EPIRB at 406 MHz


Pan Pan: When a station has a very urgent message to transmit concerning safety of a ship, aircraft or person.

Example:

PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN

Hello all stations, Hello all stations, Hello all stations

This is Yacht CRYPTIC, Yacht CRYPTIC, Yacht CRYPTIC,

My position is: 180 degrees, one mile from buoy number 1.

I have been in a collision and require assistance of a tug

Seelonce Mayday: Radio Silence: Imposing radio silence by controlling station

Seelonce Distress: Radio Silence: Issued by other station

Example:

MAYDAY - SEELONCE MAYDAY, SEELONCE MAYDAY, SEELONCE MAYDAY.

This is Severn Radio - Severn Radio - Out

Prudonce

Seelonce Feenee

Securite

Security, Security, Security

Hello all stations, Hello all stations, Hello all stations

This is Evelyn Rose, Evelyn Rose, Evelyn Rose

My position is: 180 degrees, one mile from buoy number 1.

My engine has broken down and I am anchoring in a southbound traffic lane, Request ships keep clear, over.



NAME OF SHIP....................... CALL SIGN...................................


DISTRESS TRANSMITTING PROCEDURES
(For use only when Immediate Assistance required)

1.Ensure transmitter is switched to 156.8MHz.

2. If possible transmit two tone Alarm Signal for 1/2 to 1 minute.

3. Then say:

MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY
THIS IS..................... (Ship's name or call sign 3 times).......... MAYDAY

followed by ship's name or call sign

POSITION...............................................

Nature of distress....................................

Aid required............................... OVER

4. Listen for a reply and if none repeat above procedure, particularly during the 3-
minute silence period commencing at each hour and half-hour.

Example - If possible Alarm Signal followed by:
MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY.
This is EVELYN ROSE, EVELYN ROSE, EVELYN ROSE
MAYDAY, EVELYN ROSE

Position: 54 24 north 018 33 West.
I am on fire and require immediate assistance. OVER.




Common Terminology

All after - used after the proword 'SAY AGAIN' to request a repetition of a portion of a message.

All before - used after the proword 'SAY AGAIN to request a repetition of a portion of a message.

Correct - reply to repetition of a message that has been proceded by the proword's READ BACK FOR CHECK when it has been correctly repeated.

Correction - spoken during the transmission of a message means - An error has been made in this transmission. Cancel the last word or group. The correct word or group follows.

In Figures - the following numeral or-group of numerals are to be written as figures.

In Letters - the following numeral or group of numerals are to be written in letters as spoken.

I Read Back - if the receiving station is doubtful about the accuracy of the whole or any part of a message it may repeat it back to the sending station, preceding the repetition with the proword's I READ BACK

I State Again - I am repeating transmission or potion indicated.

I Spell - I shall spell the next word or group of letters phonetically.

Out - this is the end of working to you. The end of work between two stations is indicated by each station adding the word OUT at the end of the last reply.

Over - the invitation to reply. Note that the' phrase OVER AND OUT is never used.

Radio Check - please tell me the strength and the clarity of my transmission.

Received - used to acknowledge receipt of a message, i.e, YOUR NUMBER...RECEIVED. In cases of language difficulties, the word 'ROMEO' is used.

Say Again - repeat your message or portion referred to i.e., SAY AGAIN ALL AFTER... SAY AGAIN ADDRESS etc. (Note:- This is typical of the need to memorise all these catch phrases'. To use the word REPEAT would be wrong REPEAT is used to emphasise something).

Station Calling - used when a station receives a call, which is intended for it, but is uncertain of the identification of the calling station.

This Is - this transmission is from the station whose call sign immediately follows. In cases of language difficulties the abbreviation DE spoken as DELTA ECHO is used

Wait - if a called station is unable to accept traffic immediately it will reply to you with the proword WAIT....Minutes

If the probable duration of the waiting time exceeds 10 minutes the reason for the delay should be given.

Word After or Word Before - used after the proword SAY.

Again - to request repetition of a portion of a radiogram or message.

Wrong - reply to a repetition of a radio telegram that has been preceded by the proword's 'I READ BACK, when it has been incorrectly repeated.


The phonetic alphabet

A Alfa AL FAH
B Bravo BRAH VO
C Charlie CHAR LEE
D Delta DELL TAH
E Echo ECK OH
F Foxtrot FOKS TROT
G Golf GOLF
H Hotel HOH TELL
I India IN DEE AH
J Juliet JEW LEE ETT
K Kilo KEY LOH
L Lima LEE MAH
M Mike MIKE
N November NO VEM BER
O Oscar 0SS CAH
P Papa PAH PAH
Q Quebec KEH BECK
R Romeo ROW ME OH
S Sierra SEE AIR RAH
T Tango TANG GO
U Uniform YOU NEE FORM
V Victor VIK TAH
W Whiskey WISS KEY
X X-ray ECKS RAY
Y Yankee YANG KEY
Z Zulu ZOO LOO

The phonetic numbering system

o Wun
o Too
o Tree
o Fow-er
o Fife
o Six
o Sev-en
o Ait
o Nin-er
o Zero,
o Decimal

Knots

A

Adjustable bend - can be easily lengthened or shortened
Adjustable hitch (taut-line hitch) - adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension
Adjustable loop (slip knot) - attach a line to an object and tighten when tension is applied to the free end of the line
Albright knot (Albright special) - used to tie two different diameters of line together, for instance to tie monofilament to braid
Alpine coil (mountaineer's coil) - method used by climbers for carrying a rope
Alternate ring hitching - covering a ring in hitching can prevent damage
Anchor bend - attaching a rope to a ring or similar termination
Angler's knot (fisherman's knot) - a knot for joining two lines with a symmetrical structure
Angler's loop - knot which forms a fixed loop. Useful for fine or slippery line, it is one of the few loop knots which holds well in bungee cord.
Arbor knot - attach fishing line to the arbor of a fishing reel
Artillery loop aka manharness knot - a knot with a loop on the bight for non-critical purposes
Ashley's bend - used to securely join the ends of two ropes together
Ashley's stopper knot - trefoil-faced stopper at the end of the rope
Axle hitch - used to tie a hitch in a hard-to-reach place

B

Bachmann knot - friction hitch useful when the knot needs to be reset quickly/often
Bag knot (miller's knot) - binding knot used to secure the opening of a sack or bag
Bait loop (bumper knot) - secures soft or loose bait in fishing
Bale sling hitch - continuous loop of strap to form a cow hitch around an object
Barrel hitch (barrel sling) - suspends an object
Barrel knot (blood knot) - joins sections of monofilament nylon line while maintaining much of the line's inherent strength
Barrel sling (barrel hitch) - suspends an object
Becket hitch - any hitch made on an eye loop
Beer knot - bend used in tubular webbing as in slings used in rock climbing
Bimini twist - fishing knot used for offshore trolling and sportsfishing
Blackwall hitch - temporary means of attaching a rope to a hook
Blake's hitch - friction hitch commonly used by arborists and tree climbers as an ascending knot
Blood knot (barrel knot) - joins sections of monofilament nylon line while maintaining much of the line's inherent strength
Blood loop knot (dropper loop) - forms a loop which is off to the side of the line
Boa knot - binding knot
Boom hitch - attach a line to a fixed object like a pipe
Bottle sling (jug sling) - used to create a handle for a container with a narrow tapering neck
Bowen knot (heraldic knot) - not a true knot (an unknot), a continuous loop of rope laid out as an upright square shape with loops at each of the four corners
Bowline - forms a fixed loop at the end of a rope
Bowline on a bight - makes a pair of fixed-size loops in the middle of a rope
Bumper knot - secures soft or loose bait in fishing
Buntline hitch - attach a rope to an object
Butterfly bend - connects two ends of rope
Butterfly loop (alpine butterfly) - forms a fixed loop in the middle of a rope

C

Carrick bend - joins two lines of heavy rope or cable
Carrick mat - flat woven decorative knot which can be used as a mat or pad
Cat's paw - connects a rope to an object
Catshank - variant of the sheepshank, clinched by two overhand knots with the bights passed through the twists
Chain sinnet - method of shortening a rope or other cable
Chain stitch - a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped stitches form a chain-like pattern
Cleat "knot"
Clove hitch - two successive half-hitches around an object
Common whipping - series of knots intended to stop a rope from unraveling
Constrictor knot - series of knots intended to stop a rope from unraveling
Continuous ring hitching - series of identical hitches made around a ring
Corned beef knot - binding knot often used for binding the meat of the same name while it is being cooked
Cow hitch - hitch knot used to attach a rope to an object
Cow hitch and bowline (bale sling hitch or strap hitch) - uses a continuous loop of strap to form a cow hitch around an object in order to hoist or lower it
Cowboy bowline - variation of the bowline loop knot

D

Diagonal lashing - lashing to bind spars or poles together to prevent racking
Diamond knot - (knife lanyard knot) for forming a decorative loop on the end of a cord
Directional figure eight - (inline figure-eight loop) loop knot that can be made on the bight
Distel hitch - sercure friction hitch used for rope climbing
Dogshank - variant of the sheepshank where the eyes formed at each end have the ends of the rope passed through
Double anchorman knot - two or more pieces of rope joined together
Double bowline - (round turn bowline) loop knot that uses a round turn
Double carrick bend - join two lines together
Double constrictor knot - binding knot that can be difficult to untie once tightened
Double Englishman's knot - (grapevine knot) joins two lengths of rope
Double figure eight bend - joins two ropes of roughly similar size
Double figure-eight loop - forms two parallel loops
Double figure eight - (stevedore knot) bulky stopper knot often tied near the end of a rope that is secure-when-slack
Double fisherman knot - (grapevine knot) joins two lengths of rope
Double loop - for making loops at the end of lines similar to the Surgeon's knot, but with a double strand
Double overhand - extension of the regular overhand knot, made with one additional pass
Double overhand noose - hitch knot used to bind a rope to a carabiner
Double pile hitch - attaches a rope to a pole or other structure
Double sheet bend - doubles a sheet bend by making an additional round turn below the first and again bringing the working end back under itself
Double windsor (for use in neckties) - method of tying a necktie around one's neck and collar
Dropper loop - forms a loop which is off to the side of the line
Dutch marine bowline - (cowboy bowline) variation of the bowline loop knot

E

Egg loop aka bumper knot - secures soft or loose bait in fishing applications
Englishman's knot - (fisherman's knot) a bend consisting of two overhand knots, each tied around the standing part of the other
Eskimo bowline - places a loop in the end of a rope
European death knot - (overhand bend) joins two ropes together
Eye splice - creates a permanent loop in the end of multi stranded rope by means of rope splicing

F

Falconer's knot - used in falconry to tether a bird of prey to a perch
Farmer's loop - midline loop knot made with a bight
Farrimond friction hitch - quick release adjustable friction hitch for use on lines under tension
Fiador knot - decorative, symmetrical knot used in equine applications
Figure-of-eight follow through - type of knot created by a loop on the bight
Figure-of-eight knot aka savoy knot, Flemish knot - type of knot created by a loop on the bight
Figure-of-eight loop - type of knot created by a loop on the bight
Fireman's chair knot - knot tied in the bight forming two adjustable, lockable loops
Fisherman's bend - (anchor bend) used for attaching a rope to a ring or similar termination
Fisherman's knot - knot for joining two lines with a symmetrical structure consisting of two overhand knots, each tied around the standing part of the other
Flemish bend - knot for joining two ropes of roughly similar size
Flemish knot aka figure-of-eight knot, savoy knot - knot for joining two ropes of roughly similar size
French bowline - variant of the bowline with two loops

G

Garda hitch - (alpine clutch) climbing knot that lets the rope move in only one direction
Granny knot - secures a rope or line around an object
Grief knot - (what knot) combines features of granny knot and thief knot
Ground-line hitch - attaches a rope to an object

H

Hackamore - type of animal headgear which does not have a bit
Half blood knot - (clinch knot) for securing a fishing line to a fishing lure, snap or swivel
Half hitch - simple overhand knot, where the working end of a line is brought over and under the standing part
Half-Windsor knot - knot used for tying neckties
Halter hitch - connects a rope to an object
Handcuff knot - tied in the bight, having two adjustable loops in opposing directions
Hangman's noose - well-known knot most often associated with its use in hanging a person
Harness bend - used to join two ropes together
Harness hitch - knot with a loop on the bight for non-critical purposes
Heaving line bend - used to attach playing strings to the thick silk eyes of the anchorage knot
Highwayman's hitch - insecure, quick-release, draw loop hitch for trivial use
Hitching tie - simple knot used to tie off drawstring bags that allows quick access
Honda knot aka lariat loop - loop knot commonly used in a lasso
Hunter's bend aka rigger's bend - joins two lines

I

Icicle hitch - excellent for connecting to a post when weight is applied to an end running parallel to the post in a specific direction
Improved clinch knot - used for securing a fishing line to the fishing lure
In-line figure 8 loop - loop knot that can be made on the bight
Italian hitch - simple knot commonly used by climbers and cavers as part of a life-lining or belay system

J

Jack Ketch's knot - well-known knot most often associated with its use in hanging a person
Jug sling aka bottle sling - used to create a handle for a glass or ceramic container with a slippery, narrow, tapering neck
Jury mast knot - for jury rigging a temporary mast on a sailboat or ship

K

Killick hitch - hitch knot used to attach a rope to oddly shaped objects
Klemheist knot - friction hitch that grips a rope when weight is applied, and is free to move when the weight is released
Knot of isis - ancient Egyptian symbol of the goddess Isis; similar to a knot used to secure the garments that the Egyptian gods wore
Karash Double Loop - A recently invented knot used to form leg loops as a make-shift harness

L

Lariat loop aka honda knot - loop knot commonly used in a lasso
Lark's foot - (cow hitch) used to attach a rope to an object
Lark's head - (cow hitch) used to attach a rope to an object
Left-hand bowline - variation of the bowline loop knot
Ligature knot aka surgeon's knot - simple modification to the reef knot that adds an extra twist when tying the first throw
Lighterman's hitch - ideal for heavy towing, or making fast to a post, bollard, or winch
Lineman's loop - (butterfly loop) used to form a fixed loop in the middle of a rope
Lissajous knot - knot defined by parametric equations
Lobster buoy hitch - similar to the buntline hitch, but made with a cow hitch around the standing part rather than a clove hitch

M

Magnus hitch (rolling hitch) - used to attach a rope to a rod, pole, or other rope
Manharness knot (artillery loop) - knot with a loop on the bight for non-critical purposes
Matthew Walker's knot - decorative knot that is used to keep the end of a rope from fraying
Marlinespike hitch - temporary knot used to attach a rod to a rope in order to form a handle
Midshipman's hitch (taut-line hitch) - adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension
Miller's knot - binding knot used to secure the opening of a sack or bag
Monkey's fist - looks somewhat like a small bunched fist/paw, most often used as the weight in a heaving line
Mountaineer's coil - method used by climbers for carrying a rope
Munter hitch - simple knot commonly used by climbers and cavers as part of a life-lining or belay system

N

Nail knot - used in fly fishing to attach the leader to the fly line
Noose - loop at the end of a rope in which the knot slides to make the loop collapsible

O

One-sided overhand bend - used to join two ropes together
Ossel hitch - used to attach a rope or line to an object
Overhand bend - used to join two ropes together
Overhand knot with draw-loop - knot in which the weight of the load depresses the loop to keep it in place
Overhand knot aka thumb knot - fundamental knot that forms the basis of many others
Oysterman's stopper knot - common overhand noose, but with the end of the rope passing through the noose eye, which closes upon it

P

Packer's knot - binding knot which is easily pulled taut and quickly locked in position
Palomar knot - used for securing a fishing line to a fishing lure, snap or swivel
Pile hitch - used for attaching rope to a pole or other structure
Poldo tackle - an instant tension-applying and tension-releasing mechanism in rope
Pratt knot - a method of tying a tie around one's neck and collar
Pretzel link knot - in knot theory, a branch of mathematics, a pretzel link is a special kind of link
Prusik knot - friction hitch or knot used to put a loop of cord around a rope
Portuguese bowline aka French bowline - variant of the bowline with two loops that are adjustable in size
Portuguese whipping -
Power cinch - (trucker's hitch) commonly used for securing loads on trucks or trailers

R

Racking bend - knot for joining two ropes of different diameter
Reef knot - simple binding knot used to secure a rope or line around an object
Rigger's bend aka hunter's bend - used to join two lines
Rigid double splayed loop in the bight - knot that contains two parallel loops
Ring bend - for joining two ends of webbing together
Ring hitch - used to attach a rope to an object
Ring knot - for joining two ends of webbing together
Rolling hitch - knot used to attach a rope to a rod, pole, or other rope
Rosendahl bend - general purpose bend knot unique in the ease with which it is untied, even after heavy loading
Round turn and two half hitches - hitch used to secure the end of a rope to a fixed object
Round turn
Running knot - knots which attach a line to an object and tighten when tension is applied to the free end of the line

S

Sailor's hitch - a secure, jam-proof hitch
Sailors knot aka Carrick bend - used for joining two lines
Savoy knot aka Figure-of-eight knot, Flemish knot - decorative, heraldic knot
Sheepshank - used to store rope
Sheet bend - joins two ropes together
Siberian hitch - used to attach a rope to an object
Simple knot - (four-in-hand knot) a method of tying a necktie
Single carrick bend - refers to different knots similar to the Carrick bend
Single hitch - an overhand knot tied around or through an object
Slip knot - knots which attach a line to an object and tighten when tension is applied; a type of knot designed to bind one end of a rope to the middle of another
Slipped buntline hitch - used for attaching a rope to an object
Slippery eight loop - adjustable loop knot
Slippery hitch - used to attach a line to a rod or bar
Snell Knot
Snuggle hitch - a modification of the clove hitch
Span loop - non-jamming loop that can be tied in the middle of a rope
Spanish bowline - double loop knot
Splice - the forming of a semi-permanent joint between two ropes
Square knot - used to secure a rope or line around an object
Square lashing - used to bind poles together
Square turk's head - decorative knot with a variable number of interwoven strands, forming a closed loop
Stein knot - variation of the Figure 8 knot
Stevedore knot - a stopper knot often tied near the end of a rope
Strangle knot - a simple binding knot
Strap hitch - uses a continuous loop of strap to form a cow hitch around an object
Surgeon's knot aka ligature knot - modification to the reef knot
Surgeon's loop - similar to the Surgeon's knot but with a double strand
Schwabisch knot - friction hitch used for rope climbing

T

Tarbuck knot - used by climbers and was primarily used with stranded nylon rope
Taut-line hitch - adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension
Tent hitch - adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension
Thief knot - resembles the reef knot except that the free, or working, ends are on opposite sides
Thumb knot aka overhand knot - one of the most fundamental knots and forms the basis of many others
Tiggap knot
Timber hitch - used to attach a single length of rope to a cylindrical object
Tom fool's knot - good knot with which to commence a slightly fancy sheepshank
Trefoil knot - simplest example of a nontrivial knot in mathematics
Trident loop - fixed loop knot
Triple bowline - variation of the bowline knot that is used to create three loops on one knot simultaneously
Triple crown knot - double loop knot
Triple fisherman's knot - a bend knot used to join two ends of rope together
Trucker's hitch - used for securing loads on trucks or trailers
True lover's knot - a name which has been used for many distinct knots
Tug boat hitch - ideal for heavy towing, or making fast to a post, bollard, or winch
Turle knot - used while fishing for tying a hook or fly to a leader
Twined turk's head - decorative knot with a variable number of interwoven strands forming a closed loop
Two half hitches - an overhand knot tied around a post, followed by a half-hitch
Two strand overhand knot - used to join two ropes together

U

Underwriter's knot
Uni knot - fishing knot used to attach fishing line to the arbor of a reel

V

Valdotain tresse - easily adjustable friction hitch used for rope climbing
Versatackle knot - simulates a block and tackle without actual pulleys or deadeyes
Vibration-proof hitch - used for fastening a line or rope to a solid object

W

Wagoner's hitch - compound knot commonly used for securing loads on trucks or trailers
Water bowline - type of knot designed for use in wet conditions where other knots may slip or jam
Water knot - frequently used in climbing for joining two ends of webbing together
Waterman's knot - a bend with a symmetrical structure consisting of two overhand knots, each tied around the standing part of the other
West country whipping - uses twine to secure the end of a rope to prevent it fraying
Windsor knot - a method of tying a necktie around one's neck and collar

Y

Yosemite bowline - a medium security loop knot

Z

Zeppelin bend - a secure, easily tied, and jam-proof way to connect two ropes
Zeppelin loop - (Rosendahl Loop) a secure, jam resistant loop knot based on the zeppelin bend

Solstice

Solstice is derived from two Latin words: "sol" meaning sun, and "sistere" to cause to stand still.

The Winter Solstice marks the first day of the season of winter. It falls on or near 21 December. In the southern hemisphere, the Winter solstice is celebrated in June when the northern hemisphere celebrates the Summer solstice

The Winter solstice is the time in December when the sun reaches its southern most latitude and therefore appear at its lowest in the sky at noon. The Winter solstice is the shortest day.

This is because the North Pole leans away from the sun. After the Winter solstice the Sun follows a higher and higher path through the sky each day until it is in the sky for exactly 12 hours. This occurs on the Spring Equinox.

After the Spring Equinox, the Sun still continues to follow a higher and higher path through the sky, with the days growing longer and longer, until it reaches it highest point in the sky on the Summer Solstice.

International Flags & Pennants

First Aid Training - covered CPR, how to deal with choking and wound dressing

I went to Thirsk for a Yorkshire Ambulance Turst training session. Although an ambulance call out delayed me (!) - Huby had a major incident so I had to get around the Leeds ring road I was only a little late.

I learnt and practised (on the mannequins!) CPR or CardioPulmonary Resuscitation, which is a first aid technique that is used if someone is not breathing properly or if their heart has stopped. The real reason for doing it is simply that chest compressions and rescue breaths keep blood and oxygen circulating in the body.

If someone is not breathing normally and is not moving or responding to you after an accident,

1. Check the area for hazards - electricity, falling debris or structures, slips, etc. Is it safe for you?

2. If safe get to the casualty - if possible - from the feet first so they are not suprised if conscious. Get down to them and reassure them by holding their shoulders and speaking to them clearly in both ears (in case one doesn't work!).

3. With little or no response if someone else id around call for them to help and

4. Tell them to call 999 for an ambulance. When you call for an ambulance, telephone systems now exist that can give basic life-saving instructions, including advice on CPR. These are now common and are easily accessible with mobile phones.

5. Tell them to tell the ambulance dispatcher that the person is not responding and that CPR is being administered ...

IF THERE IS NO ONE ELSE CALL 999 BEFORE DOING ANYTHING ELSE ... UNLESS THE CASUALTY IS SMALL ENOUGH TO CARRY _ then do 5 rescue breaths and administer CPR for a minute ... then carry them with you to dial 999.

6. start CPR straight away. Hands-only compression if there is any doubt given the high risk of mouth-to-mouth contamination. NOTE: The gold standard still is 30-2 CPR Mouth-To-Mouth.

7. To carry out a chest compression:

Place the heel of your hand on the breastbone at the centre of the person’s chest.

Place your other hand on top of your first hand and interlock your fingers.

Using your body weight (lock out your arms and lean over using your upper body) press straight down by 5–6cm on their chest. STAYING ALIVE is the right rhythm.

Repeat this until an ambulance arrives.

Try to give 100 chest compressions a minute.

CPR with rescue breaths

Adults

Place your hands on the centre of the person's chest and, with the heel of your hand, press down by 5–6cm at a steady rate, slightly faster than one compression a second.

After every 30 chest compressions, give two breaths but tilt the casualty's head gently and lift the chin up with two fingers. Pinch the person’s nose. Seal your mouth over their mouth and blow steadily and firmly into their mouth. Check that their chest rises. Give two rescue breaths, each over one second.

Continue with cycles of 30 chest compressions and two rescue breaths until they begin to recover or emergency help arrives.

Children over one year old


Open their airway by placing one hand on the child’s forehead and gently tilting their head back and lifting the chin.

Remove any visible obstructions from the mouth and nose.

Pinch their nose. Seal your mouth over their mouth and blow steadily and firmly into their mouth, checking that their chest rises. Give five initial rescue breaths. SAME FOR POSSIBLE DROWNING:

Place your hands on the centre of their chest and, with the heel of your hand, press down by one-third of the depth of the chest using one or two hands.

After every 30 chest compressions at a steady rate (slightly faster than one compression a second), give two breaths.

Continue with cycles of 30 chest compressions and two rescue breaths until they begin to recover or emergency help arrives.

Babies under one year old

Open the baby's airway by placing one hand on their forehead and gently tilting the head back and lifting the chin.

Remove any visible obstructions from the mouth and nose.

Place your mouth over the mouth and nose of the infant and blow steadily and firmly into their mouth, checking that their chest rises. Give five initial rescue breaths.

Place two fingers in the middle of the chest (or hands around the trunk leaving the two thumbs over the sternum to press) and press down by one-third of the depth of the chest. After 30 chest compressions at a steady rate (slightly faster than one compression a second), give two breaths.

Continue with cycles of 30 chest compressions and two rescue breaths until they begin to recover or emergency help arrives.

Choking:

Clearing a blocked airway in conscious adults and children over the age of one follows; it is not meant to be used for choking infants under age one. See later

First, ask the person if he/she can speak. If he/she can speak, it means he/she still has good air exchange and might be able to get the object out of his/her throat on their own with some coughing. Ask them to try to cough the object out.

If the person can’t speak, makes high-pitched sounds when he/she talks or coughs, or it looks like their not breathing, it’s time to intervene.

If the casualty is conscious and choking .... the first is to slap them - quite hard - on the back 5 times - between the shoulder blades - with the casualty leaning forward but supported (so they cannot fall!). Warn them!

If this fails then - with them still leaning forward but supported by your arms - stand behind them and hold them in your two arms do that your hands interlock and one of the thumb joints is at a sharp angle inwards towards the casualty. A fist width with the thumb bent locates the right part of the diaphragm to thrust into.

The act of abdominal thrust lifts the diaphragm and forces air from the lungs, similar to a coughing action, so that the foreign body in an airway may be moved and expelled.

Stand behind the person, wrap your arms around the waist, and tip the person slightly forward.

Make a fist with one hand and place it slightly above the navel.

Grasp your fist with your other hand and press forcefully into the abdomen with quick, upward thrusts, using force as if you were attempting to lift the person up.

Continue the back slaps / thrusts - 5 each - until the foreign body is dislodged OR if the casualty loses consciousness go to CPR. When a choking person is unconscious, lower the person on her back onto the floor. Clear the airway using the head-tilt method. If you can see the blockage, reach a finger into the mouth and sweep it out (finger sweep), using caution not to push the object deeper into the airway. If you are unable to remove the obstructing object and the person doesn't respond, you must begin CPR. In this case, there is a chance that the chest compressions used in CPR will free the object so recheck the mouth at regular intervals.

To clear an airway obstruction of a pregnant woman or obese person, place your fists closer to the chest, right above the joining of the ribs at the base of the breastbone, and follow chest thrusts.

In the case of a choking infant younger than age one, sit with the infant face down on your forearm, positioned securely on your thigh. Thump the infant firmly and gently five times with the heel of your hand in the middle of the back. The back blows and the gravity will most likely free the obstruction.

If it doesn't work, turn the infant face up on your forearm, head lower than body, and use two fingers positioned over the center of the breastbone just below the nipples and give five quick chest compressions. Continue to repeat the back blows and chest thrusts and if the infant doesn't start breathing, call 999.

If you have cleared the obstruction and the infant doesn't start breathing, begin CPR.